Methods and device for controlling pressure in reactive multilayer joining and resulting product

ABSTRACT

The invention includes a method of joining two components. The method includes providing at least two components to be joined, a reactive multilayer foil, and a compliant element, placing the reactive multilayer foil between the at least two components, applying pressure on the two components in contact with the reactive multilayer foil via a compliant element, and initiating a chemical transformation of the reactive multilayer foil so as to physically join the at least two components. The invention also includes two components joined using the aforementioned method.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefits of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/516,755, filed Nov.4, 2003, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with U.S. Government support under NationalScience Foundation Award Nos. DMI-0321500. The U.S. Government hascertain rights in this invention.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention includes joining two components using a reactivemultilayer foil by placing the two components in contact with thereactive multilayer foil using a compliant element.

2. Background of the Invention

Reactive multilayer joining is a particularly advantageous process forsoldering, welding or brazing materials at room temperature. Examples ofsuch joining are disclosed in the following, the entirety of all ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference: U.S. Pat. No. 5,381,944;U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/469,841, filed May 13, 2003;U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/898,650, filed Jul. 23, 2004; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/201,292 filed May 2, 2000; U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/843,352, filed May 12, 2004; and U.S.patent application Ser. No. 09/846,486, filed Apr. 18, 2002.

The joining process (e.g., soldering or brazing processes) is based onsandwiching a reactive multilayer material (e.g., a foil) between twofusible layers (e.g., solder and/or braze layers) and two components,and then chemically transforming (e.g., igniting) the foil. Aself-propagating reaction is thus initiated in the foil which results ina rapid rise in the reactive foil temperature. The heat released by thereaction melts the fusible-material layers, and upon cooling, bonds thetwo components.

Alternatively, layers of fusible material are not used (i.e. thereactive multilayer material is placed directly between the componentsto be joined). By igniting (e.g., chemically transforming) the reactivemultilayer material (e.g., foil), the heat release by the chemicaltransformation of the reactive multilayer material melts material fromthe adjoining surfaces of the two components, and consequently joins thecomponents.

Reactive multilayer joining is far more rapid than conventionaltechniques that utilize furnaces or torches. Thus, significant gains inproductivity may be achieved. In addition, with very localized heatingusing reactive multilayer joining, temperature sensitive components, aswell as dissimilar materials such as metals and ceramics, may be joined(e.g., soldered or brazed) with little or no thermal damage. Theroom-temperature welding process also offers advantages in welding ofbulk amorphous metals (examples of which are disclosed in article by A.J Swiston et al. entitled “Joining Bulk Metallic Glass Using ReactiveMultilayer Foils” published in Scripta Metallurgica et Materialia,Volume 48, page 1575 in 2003 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/201,292 filed May 2, 2000, the entirety of both of which areincorporated herein by reference), avoiding or minimizingcrystallization, and thereby resulting in a high-strength bond. Asdisclosed in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/461,196 filedApr. 9, 2003 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/814,243 filed Apr.1, 2004, hermetic sealing applications may also be enhanced by thereactive joining process.

The reactive multilayer foils used in reactive joining are typicallyfabricated by vapor depositing hundreds of nanoscale layers thatalternate between elements with large, negative heats of mixing such asNi and Al. Examples are disclosed in the following references, theentirety of each of which are incorporated herein by reference: U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,538,795, 5,547,715; an article by Anselmi-Tamburni et al.entltied “The Propagation of a Solid-State Combustion Wave in Ni—AlFoils” published in the Journal of Applied Physics, Volume 66, page 5039in 1989; an article by Besnoin et al. entitled “Effect of Reactant andProduct Melting on Self-Propagating Reactions in Multilayer Foils”published in the Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 92(9), pages 5474-5481on Nov. 1, 2002; an article by Blobaum et al. entitled “Deposition andCharacterization of a Self-Propagating CuOx/Al Thermite Reaction in aMultilayer Foil Geometry” published in the Journal of Applied Physics,Vol. 94(5), pages 2915-2922 on Sep. 1, 2003; an article by Dyer et al.entitled “The Combustion Synthesis of Multilayer NiAl Systems” publishedin Scripta Metallurgica et Materialia, Vol. 30(10), pages 1281-1286 in1994 (“Dyer”); an article by Gavens et al. entitled “Effects ofIntermixing on Self-Propagating Exothermic Reactions in Al/NiNanolaminate Nanofoils” published in the Journal of Applied Physics,Vol. 87(3), pages 1255-1263 on Feb. 1, 2000 (“Gavens”); an article byReiss et al. entitled “Self-propagating Formation Reactions in Nb/SiMultilayers” published in Mat. Sci. and Eng. A., Volume A261, pages217-222 in 1999; a book entitled “Selected Values of ThermodynamicProperties of Metals and Alloys” edited by Hultgren et al. and publishedby Wiley of New York City in 1963; an article by van Heerden et al.entitled “Metastable Phase Formation and Microstructural Evolutionduring Self-Propagating Reactions in Al/Ni and Al/Monel Multilayers”published in Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proceedings, Volume 481, pages 533-8in the Fall of 1997; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/846,486, filedApr. 18, 2002; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/201,292, filedMay 2, 2000; a chapter entitled “Self-Propagating Reactions inMultilayer Materials” published in the 1998 edition of the Handbook ofThin Film Process Technology edited by D. A. Glocker and S. I. Shah; andan article entitled “Self-Propagating Exothermic Reactions in NanoscaleMultilayer Materials” that was presented at The Minerals, Metals, andMaterials Society (TMS) Proceeding on Nanostructures in February of 1997(“TMS”).

Recent developments have shown that it may be possible to carefullycontrol both the heat of the reaction as well as the reaction velocity,and have also provided alternative means for fabricating nanostructuredmultilayers. For instance, it has been demonstrated that the velocities,heats, and temperatures of the reactions can be controlled by varyingthe thicknesses of the alternating layers. Examples are disclosed in thefollowing references, the entirety of each of which are incorporatedherein by reference: U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,795; Dyer; Gavens; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 09/846,486, filed Apr. 18, 2002; and U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/201,292, filed May 2, 2000. It hasalso been shown that the heats of reaction can be controlled bymodifying the foil composition, or by low-temperature annealing of thereactive multilayers after their fabrication, for example, as disclosedin Gavens. Alternative methods for fabricating nanostructured reactivemultilayers include: (i) mechanical processing, for example, asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,534,194, the entirety of which isincorporated herein by reference, and (ii) electro-chemical deposition.

Two advantages achieved by the use of reactive foils are speed andlocalization of heat to the joint area. Both result in technologicaladvantages over conventional soldering or brazing methods, particularlyfor applications involving temperature-sensitive components, ormetal/ceramic bonding. In conventional welding or brazing,temperature-sensitive components can be destroyed or damaged during theprocess, and thermal damage to the materials may necessitate costly andtime-consuming operations, such as subsequent anneals or heattreatments. In contrast, when joining with reactive multilayer foils,the components receive little heat and experience a limited rise intemperature. Only the braze layers and the surfaces of the componentsare heated substantially. Thus, thermal damage problems are naturallyavoided. In addition, the reactive joining process is fast, and resultsin cost-effective, strong, and thermally-conductive joints. Substantialcommercial advantages can thus be achieved, particularly for assembly offiber optic components, hermetic sealing, for example, as disclosed inU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/461,196 filed Apr. 9, 2003and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/814,243 filed Apr.1, 2004; andheat-sink mounting, for example, as disclosed in an article by VanHeerden et al. entitled “A Ten Fold Reduction in Interface ThermalResistance for Heat Sink Mounting” which was presented at theproceedings of IMAPS 2003 Symposium (“Van Heerden”), the entirety of allof which are incorporated herein by reference.

Several characteristics of the reactive joining process have beeninvestigated, for example, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,381,944. Inparticular, investigations have shown that, due to densificationassociated with the reaction as well as cooling from the high reactiontemperature, cracking occurs within the reactive multilayer foil. Thesecracks are typically filled by molten material, namely the fusiblematerial in reactive soldering or brazing or molten component materialin reactive welding. The flow of molten material within the cracks thatform in the foil has been shown to be a factor controlling jointproperties, including mechanical strength, for example, as disclosed inU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/201,292, filed May 2, 2000.

Accordingly, recent efforts have focused at controlling the flow offusible material in reactive multilayer joining. In particular, theseefforts have shown that the duration of melting is affected by thephysical properties of the foil, the fusible material and the componentsbeing joined, for example, as disclosed in Van Heerden. In addition, ithas recently been shown that the pressure applied on the component alsoaffects the flow of molten material, the ability of the molten materialto fill cracks appearing the reactive foil, and consequently the jointproperties, for example, as disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser.No. 10/898,650, filed Jul. 23, 2004, the entirety of which isincorporated herein by reference.

While applied pressure is known to constitute an important factor inreactive joining, methods for applying and maintaining the pressure havenot been investigated. Specifically, prior efforts have relied on theuse of vices or mechanical presses as mean to apply the pressure, forexample, as disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/898,650,filed Jul. 23, 2004, filed Jul. 23, 2003; U.S. patent application Ser.No. 09/846,486, filed Apr. 18, 2002; and U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 60/201,292, filed May 2, 2000. While these approachesmay be effective in exerting an initial load on the assembly, they maysuffer from the disadvantage that pressure cannot be maintained norcontrolled during the joining. During reactive joining, the moltenmaterial flows into the cracks that form in the reactive foil as aresult of densification due to the reaction, and shrinkage due tocooling. The flow of molten material is enhanced by the appliedpressure. However, the flow of molten material generally tends torelieve the applied pressure. Vices and presses are typically inadequatein mitigating the impact of this flow, which consequently results insudden and dramatic drop in the applied pressure. As further discussedbelow, this pressure reduction effect has detrimental impact on jointproperties. Moreover, joint properties may vary significantly from oneloading system to another, even if the same pressure is appliedinitially.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An embodiment of the invention includes a method including the steps ofproviding at least two components to be joined, a reactive multilayerfoil, and a compliant element, placing the reactive multilayer foilbetween the at least two components, applying pressure to the at leasttwo components and the reactive multilayer foil via the compliantelement, and initiating a chemical transformation of the reactivemultilayer foil so as to physically join the at least two components.The invention may also or alternatively include a joint formed usingthis method.

Another embodiment of the invention includes a method including thesteps of providing at least two components to be joined, a reactivemultilayer foil, and a dead weight, placing the reactive multilayer foilbetween the at least two components, applying pressure to the at leasttwo components and the reactive multilayer foil via the dead weight, andinitiating a chemical transformation of the reactive multilayer foil soas to physically join the at least two components. The invention mayalso or alternatively include a joint formed using this method.

A further embodiment of the invention includes an apparatus including acompliant assembly including at least one compliant element. Thecompliant assembly is configured to apply pressure to at least twocomponents and a reactive multilayer foil disposed between the at leasttwo components via the at least one compliant element.

Yet another embodiment of the invention includes a compliant assemblyincluding at least one weight. The compliant assembly is configured toapply pressure to at least two components and a reactive multilayer foildisposed between the at least two components via the at least oneweight.

In various embodiments, the invention may include one or more of thefollowing aspects: the compliant element may be configured such that thepressure applied to the at least two components and the reactivemultilayer foil after initiating a chemical transformation the reactivemultilayer foil is between about 80% and about 120% of the pressureapplied to the at least two components and the reactive multilayer foilprior to initiating the chemical transformation of the reactivemultilayer foil; the compliant element may be a spring; the compliantelement may be a plunger; the compliant element may be a component of atleast one of a pneumatic system, a hydraulic system, and a piezoelectricsystem; the compliant element may be a deformable material; thedeformable material may be a deformable pad; the compliant element maybe a portion of an active feedback system; the active feedback systemmay be at least one of a pneumatic system, a hydraulic system, and apiezoelectric system; providing one or more fusible layers and arrangingthe one or more fusible layers between the reactive multilayer foil andthe at least two components; at least one of the one or more fusiblelayer may be at least one of solder or braze; coating one or moreadhesion layers on one or more surfaces of the reactive multilayer foil;and at least one of the one or more adhesion layers may include Incusil.

In various embodiments, the invention may include one or more of thefollowing aspects: the compliant assembly may include one or moreportions configured to have the at least two components and the reactivemultilayer foil disposed between the one or more portions; at least oneof the one or more portions may be configured to be placed in contactwith at least one of the at least two components; the at least onecompliant element may be configured to be disposed between at least oneof the one or more portions and at least one of the at least twocomponents; a first of the one or more portions may be disposed betweenthe at least one compliant element and a second of the one or moreportions different from the first of the one or more portions; the atleast one compliant element may include at least two compliant elements;the at least one compliant element may be configured such that thepressure applied to the at least two components and the reactivemultilayer foil after initiating a chemical transformation of thereactive multilayer foil is between about 80% and about 120% of thepressure applied to the at least two components and the reactivemultilayer foil prior to initiating the chemical transformation of thereactive multilayer foil; the at least one compliant element may be aspring; the at least one compliant element may be a plunger; the atleast one compliant element may be a component of at least one of apneumatic system, a hydraulic system, and a piezoelectric system; the atleast one compliant element may be a deformable material; the deformablematerial may be a deformable pad; the at least one compliant element maybe a portion of an active feedback system; the active feedback systemmay be at least one of a pneumatic system, a hydraulic system, and apiezoelectric system; the at least one weight may be configured to bedisposed between at least one of the one or more portions and at leastone of the at least two components; a first of the one or more portionsmay be disposed between the at least one weight and a second of the oneor more portions different from the first of the one or more portions;and the at least one weight may include at least two weights.

Additional objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth inpart in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious fromthe description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. Theobjects and advantages of the invention will be realized and attained bymeans of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in theappended claims.

It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description andthe following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory onlyand are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of theinvention and together with the description, serve to explain theprinciples of the invention.

FIG. 1 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 depicts a joining assembly accordingly another embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 3 a depicts the results of the joining assembly of FIG. 2 joinedusing the compliant assembly of FIG. 1 as compared to an assemblywithout a compliant element according to a further embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 3 b depicts the results of the joining assembly of FIG. 2 joinedusing the compliant assembly of FIG. 1 as compared to an assemblywithout a compliant element according to yet another embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 4 depicts the results of the joining assembly of FIG. 2 joinedusing the compliant assembly of FIG. 1 as compared to an assemblywithout a compliant element according to a yet further embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 5 a depicts the joining assembly of FIG. 2 joined using thecompliant assembly of FIG. 1 according to still another embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 5 b depicts the joining assembly of FIG. 2 joined using assemblywithout a compliant element according to a still further embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 6 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according toanother embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according to afurther embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according toyet another embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 9 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according to ayet further embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 10 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according tostill another embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 11 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according to astill further embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 12 depicts a compliant assembly and joining assembly according toanother embodiment of the invention.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

An exemplary objective of this invention is to overcome the drawbacksnoted above. Consistent with an aspect of the invention, a compliantelement is introduced. The compliant assembly may be capable ofcompensating for a reduction in height (e.g., bond line thickness)occurring during the reactive joining process, and consequently maintaina substantially constant pressure. As further discussed below, thisapproach results in reactive joints with superior properties compared tosimilar joints obtained in a stiff non-compliant system that use a vice,mechanical press, or a screw-driven compression load frame.

Reference will now be made in detail to the exemplary embodiments of theinvention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanyingdrawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be usedthroughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.

In one exemplary embodiment of this invention, as schematicallyillustrated in FIG. 1, a compliant assembly 1 (e.g., mechanical press orvice) may include a compliant element 2 (e.g., a spring). Compliantelement 2 may be suitably positioned within assembly 1 between one ormore portions 3, 4 (e.g., plates) of the compliant assembly 1. A joiningassembly 100 may include a reactive multilayer material 101 (e.g., foil)disposed between one or more components 102, 103 to be joined, andjoining assembly 100 may be disposed between portions of compliantassembly 1, for example, one or more of plates 3, 4, and/or spring 2.Spring 2 may be disposed between an outer surface 103 o of component 103of joining assembly 100 and an inner surface 3 i of portion 3 so as toprovide compliance and/or maintain pressure on joining assembly 100during the joining process.

In various embodiments, compliant assembly 1 and joining assembly 100may have a variety of configurations. For example, a reactive foil 101may be disposed in between two components 102, 103 to be joined, and acompliant element 2 may be placed in contact with at least one of thetwo components 102, 103. In another example, a foil 201 may be disposedin between a fusible layer 202 disposed on a component 204 to be joinedand another component 205 to be joined, with a compliant element 2placed in contact with at least one of the two components 204, 205. In afurther example, a foil 201 may be disposed between fusible layers 202,203 disposed on each of two components 204, 205 to be joined, with acompliant element 2 placed in contact with at least one of the twocomponents 204, 205. In yet another example, any combination of the foil101, components 102, 103, and/or fusible layers (e.g., as set forthherein) may be placed in contact with one or plates 3, 4. A compliantelement 2 may be placed in contact with at least one of the one or moreplates 3, 4, for example, in contact with an outer surface 3 o of plate3 as shown in FIG. 12. In a yet further example, any combination of thefoil, components, and/or fusible layers (e.g., as set forth herein) maybe placed in contact with one or more plates of the compliant assembly.Alternatively, one or more compliant elements may be respectively placedin contact with the one or more plates.

Compliant assembly 1 and/or joining assembly 100 may have otheralternate configurations that may include one or more of the followingaspects. For example, as shown in FIG. 6, compliant assembly 1 may beinclude one or more compliant elements 2. Compliant element 2 mayinclude one or more of a pneumatic system 7 (e.g., as indicated in FIG.7), plunger 8 (e.g., as indicated in FIG. 8), and a deformable pad 9(e.g., as indicated in FIG. 9). The compliance, for example of compliantelement 2, may be provided by an active feedback system 10 (e.g., asindicated in FIG. 10 and/or including a sensor 10 s). Active feedbacksystem 10 may include, for example, a pneumatic system, a hydraulicsystem, or piezoelectric system. The active feedback system may beconfigured to adjust the pressure applied to the joining assembly 100(e.g., via the compliant element 2), for example, to compensate for therapid expansion and contraction within the joining assembly 100 when thejoining assembly 100 is undergoing the joining process (e.g., after thechemical transformation of the reactive multilayer foil has beeninitiated). For example, it may be desirable to keep a constant pressureon the joining assembly 100 during the joining process. When thechemical transformation of the foil 101 is initiated, the pressure onthe joining assembly 100 may initially increase from the expansion ofthe foil 101, in which case the active feedback system 10 may compensate(e.g., by measuring pressure via one or more sensors 10 s) by decreasingpressure on the joining assembly 100 applied by the active feedbacksystem 10 (e.g., via a compliant element that is a portion of activefeedback system 10) in order to maintain a constant pressure on thejoining assembly 100. When the joining assembly 100 begins to coolthereafter, the pressure on the joining assembly 100 from the chemicaltransformation itself may decrease, in which case the active feedbacksystem 10 may compensate by increasing pressure on the joining assembly100 applied by the active feedback system 10 (e.g., via a compliantelement that is a portion of active feedback system 10) in order tomaintain a constant pressure on the joining assembly 100 throughout thejoining process.

Examples of acceptable pneumatic systems include a pressure vesselhaving a plunger that applies pressure to the joining assembly, adiaphragm based mechanical gas regulator (e.g., manufactured by VICTOREQUIPMENT COMPANY®), and/or an electropneumatic gas regulator (e.g.,manufactured by PARKER LUCIFER SA®). Example of acceptable plungersinclude round nose spring plungers (e.g., sold by MACMASTER CARR®).Examples of acceptable deformable pads includes those made out of rubberor any suitable polymer. Examples of acceptable active feedback systemsinclude dynamic material fatigue test systems (e.g. a MTS 858 TABLETOPTEST SYSTEM® manufactured by MTS SYSTEMS CORPORATION).

Effective compliance may also or alternately be provided by applying aweight 11 to the system (e.g., compliant assembly 1 and/or joiningassembly 100) during joining, for example, as shown in FIG. 11. Weight11 may be applied directly to the top of joining assembly 100 as shownin FIG. 11 and/or weight 11 may be applied to compliant assembly 1, forexample, on top of at least one of plates 3, 4.

Joining assembly 100 may include one or more layers of fusible materialdisposed between the reactive multilayer foil 101 and the components tobe joined 102, 103. For example, as disclosed in U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 60/461,196 filed Apr. 9, 2003 and U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/814,243 filed Apr. 1, 2004, the layers of thefusible material may adhere to one or more of foil 101 and/orcomponent(s) 102, 103, and/or may be used as free-standing sheets. Oneor more surfaces of reactive multilayer foil 101 may be coated with oneor more adhesion layers, such as Incusil.

In another embodiment of this invention, the advantages of using acompliant assembly 1 including a compliant element 2 may be assessed bycomparing the thermal and/or mechanical properties of the resultingjoints with those of a similar joint formed using a stiff mechanicalpress. The reactive joining configuration shown in FIG. 2 is used toillustrate these advantages. FIG. 2 includes a joining configuration 200including a foil 201, one or more adhesion or prewetting layers 202,203, and one or more components 204, 205 (e.g., made out of copper).

FIGS. 3 a and 3 b respectively show the thermal resistance and effectivethermal conductivity of reactive joints corresponding to the joiningassembly configuration shown in FIG. 2. Infrared thermometry was usedfor the purpose of determining thermal resistance and effective thermalconductivity, for example, as disclosed in Van Heerden. Plotted areresults obtained by: (a) inserting the joining assembly 200 in acompression load-frame which does not include a complaint element (e.g.,a materials testing machine manufactured by INSTRON CORPORATION®), and(b) inserting an identical joining assembly 200 in the same load framebut also in a compliant assembly 1, for example, as illustrated inFIG. 1. In both cases, the initial pressure imposed on the joiningassembly 200 is varied. As shown in FIGS. 3 a and 3 b, the reactivejoints formed in the compliant assembly 100 (shown as diamonds) havesmaller thermal resistance and higher effective thermal conductivitythan similar joints formed without the compliant assembly 100 (shown assquares), and this trend appears to hold regardless of the pressureinitially applied on the assembly. The reduction in interface thermalresistance achieved in the compliant assembly 100 is advantageous, forexample, in the reactive mounting of heat sinks as disclosed in VanHeerden. In particular, a lower interface thermal resistance may lead tolower operating temperatures in electronic chips, resulting in increasedreliability of those chips, and/or enable higher clock speeds in chips,resulting in higher performance of those chips.

In another embodiment of this invention, the advantages of formingreactive joints in a compliant system may be assessed by measuring theshear strength of the joints, and comparing the results withshear-strength measurements of similar joints formed in a non-compliantsystem. FIG. 4 shows the result of such a comparison for the joiningassembly configuration shown in FIG. 2. The results indicate that thestrengths of the joints obtained using the compliant assembly 100 (shownas diamonds) are systematically larger than those obtained using theload frame alone without a compliant element (shown as squares). Thus,similar to the trends based on thermal measurements, higher qualityjoints are obtained using the compliant assembly 100.

In another embodiment of this invention, the advantages for formingreactive joints using a compliant assembly 100 are assessed usingfractography on the joints following shear-lap testing. FIGS. 5 a and 5b disclose fracture surfaces for two reactive joints: one fabricatedusing a compliant assembly 100 (FIG. 5 a) and the second using only thestiff load frame (FIG. 5 b). In both cases, the initial pressure appliedon the joining assembly 100, 200 is about 100 psi. As shown in FIGS. 5 aand 5 b, the joint fabricated in the compliant assembly 100 has lowerinterfacial porosity (dark areas in the fracture surface) than a similarjoint made in the stiff system. A lower porosity or void fraction ishighly desirable, as it minimizes the likelihood of hot spots as well asthe potential degradation of the joints on thermal cycling. Theseobservations are consistent with earlier demonstration that jointsobtained in the compliant system are of higher quality than thoseobtained in the stiff system.

In another embodiment of this invention, measurements of the propertiesof joints formed using one or more compliant elements may be assessed bysystematically varying the stiffness of compliant elements. Advantagesof using compliant elements in reactive joining processes (e.g., asdisclosed herein) may be achieved if a stiffness of the compliantelement is selected such that the pressure applied to the joiningassembly during reactive joining process remains within about 20% of thepressure applied to the joining assembly prior to the initiation of thereactive joining process (e.g., prior to initiating the chemicaltransformation of the reactive multilayer foil). Accordingly, thepressure is between about 80% and about 120%.

Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled inthe art from consideration of the specification and practice of theinvention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification andexamples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spiritof the invention being indicated by the following claims.

1-20. (canceled)
 21. An apparatus, comprising: a compliant assemblyincluding at least one compliant element, wherein the compliant assemblyis configured to apply pressure to at least two components and areactive multilayer foil disposed between the at least two componentsvia the at least one compliant element.
 22. The apparatus of claim 21,wherein the compliant assembly includes one or more portions configuredto have the at least two components and the reactive multilayer foildisposed between the one or more portions.
 23. The apparatus of claim22, wherein at least one of the one or more portions is configured to beplaced in contact with at least one of the at least two components. 24.The apparatus of claim 22, wherein the at least one compliant element isconfigured to be disposed between at least one of the one or moreportions and at least one of the at least two components.
 25. Theapparatus of claim 22, wherein a first of the one or more portions isconfigured to be disposed between the at least one compliant element anda second of the one or more portions different from the first of the oneor more portions.
 26. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the at leastone compliant element includes at least two compliant elements.
 27. Theapparatus of claim 21, wherein the at least one compliant element isconfigured such that the pressure applied to the at least two componentsand the reactive multilayer foil after initiating a chemicaltransformation of the reactive multilayer foil is between about 80% andabout 120% of the pressure applied to the at least two components andthe reactive multilayer foil prior to initiating the chemicaltransformation of the reactive multilayer foil.
 28. The apparatus ofclaim 21, wherein the at least one compliant element is a spring. 29.The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the at least one compliant element isa plunger.
 30. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the at least onecompliant element is a component of at least one of a pneumatic system,a hydraulic system, and a piezoelectric system.
 31. The apparatus ofclaim 21, wherein the at least one compliant element is a deformablematerial.
 32. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein the deformable materialis a deformable pad.
 33. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the at leastone compliant element is a portion of an active feedback system.
 34. Theapparatus of claim 33, wherein the active feedback system is at leastone of a pneumatic system, a hydraulic system, and a piezoelectricsystem. 35-40. (canceled)